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The origins of war remain a subject of great debate.
Some argue that it is a necessary evil,
a means of shaping history and sparking social change.
Others believe it is simply an extension of political conflict.
Even Plato theorised that war was a direct result of human desire.
Regardless of the perspective, history is undeniably marked by warfare.
Stretching from ancient battles to the conflicts of the modern era.
By the dawn of the 20th century the concept of war was well understood.
But nothing could have prepared the world for
the devastation wrought by the two most cataclysmic conflicts in history.
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With the advancements of the Industrial Revolution, war
took on a terrifying new form.
Submarines prowled beneath the waves, aerial warfare emerged,
deadly mines lay in wait and, at the
conclusion of the Second World War, the atomic
bomb introduced an entirely new level of destruction.
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Between 1914 and 1918 the First World War
claimed more than 40 million lives, both military and civilian.
Yet, scarcely two decades later, the world found itself on the brink once more.
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The conflict that was supposed to have been the war to end all wars had failed
in its promise.
And the 1930s saw the ominous rise of
totalitarian regimes that would propel the globe into yet another brutal war.
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The Second World War began in 1939 and lasted until 1945.
The nations of Great Britain and the Commonwealth,
alongside France and later the United States, formed the Grand Alliance.
Commonly known as the Allies, fighting against Nazi
Germany, Imperial Japan and Mussolini's fascist Italy.
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Initially, the Soviet Union, under Joseph Stalin, had
signed a non-aggression pact with Hitler.
But when the German dictator betrayed this agreement,
the Russians too joined the Allied cause.
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The war spanned six years, resulting in the
staggering loss of over 50 million lives, two -thirds of whom were civilians.
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This programme, using rare archival footage, will examine
the events that led to the outbreak of war on September 3rd 1939.
And, more specifically, how the paths of two
men, Winston Churchill and Adolf Hitler, helped shape
the contours of this devastating global conflict.
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Looking back with the clarity of hindsight, it
is evident that more decisive action and better
preparation could have averted a war that continues
to cast long shadows over world history.
To understand the climate in which war erupted,
we must step back into the early 20th
century and delve into the intricate history that preceded it.
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The First World War left Europe in turmoil,
its economies shattered and political landscapes transformed.
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Monarchies crumbled, revolutions erupted and long-standing institutions
were upended.
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Mussolini established a fascist regime in Italy, the
Russian Revolution of 1917 birthed the world's first
communist state, and Germany, once a proud empire,
was left reeling from defeat.
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The Treaty of Versailles, signed in 1919, officially ended the
war but imposed severe penalties on Germany.
Though the fighting had ceased on November 11th
1918, it took months to finalise the terms of peace.
In the opulent Hall of Mirrors at the
Palace of Versailles, American President Woodrow Wilson, British
Prime Minister Lloyd George and French Premier Georges
Clemenceau gathered to shape the post-war world.
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The treaty stripped Germany of valuable industrial land,
drastically reduced its military capability and saddled it
with a crippling war debt.
But rather than ensuring lasting peace, these measures
plunged Germany into economic ruin.
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The ultimate humiliation came in the form of
the infamous War Guilt Clause, forcing Germany to
accept full responsibility for the conflict.
When German politicians signed the treaty, nationalist outrage exploded.
Among those enraged was a young soldier named
Adolf Hitler, who would later brand them the November Criminals.
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The 1920s saw Germany in dire straits.
Poverty, unemployment and social unrest gripped the nation.
It was in this atmosphere of desperation that
Adolf Hitler rose to prominence, vowing to restore Germany's former glory.
Though Austrian by birth, Hitler considered Germany his true homeland.
He had fought for the country during the
First World War and had even been awarded the Iron Cross for bravery.
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After the war, the German army, fearing communist
uprisings, tasked him with spying on the German Workers' Party.
But instead of merely observing, Hitler became deeply involved.
One evening, after delivering an impassioned 15-minute
speech, he caught the attention of the party's
leaders, who quickly recognised his potential.
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Hitler's anti-Semitic and nationalistic rhetoric resonated with
many, and soon the small party swelled in numbers.
Within days, Hitler was on its committee.
His speeches captivated audiences, railing against the Treaty
of Versailles, blaming the Jews for Germany's woes
and denouncing Marxism and communism.
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Under his leadership, the party rebranded as the
National Socialist German Workers' Party, the Nazi Party.
Hitler became its undisputed leader, or Führer, introducing
the now infamous swastika as its emblem.
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As Hitler's speeches grew ever more impassioned, Germany's
economic woes deepened.
With the Allies demanding reparations, hunger riots erupted
and the country verged on collapse.
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In 1923, the Nazis attempted a coup in
Munich, but it failed, and Hitler was imprisoned for treason.
However, rather than ending his career, his trial
and subsequent imprisonment only amplified his influence.
His courtroom speeches were widely published, spreading his
ideology far beyond his initial base of support.
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Hitler used his time in prison to pen Mein Kampf,
a manifesto that laid bare his extreme nationalist and racist beliefs.
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He vilified Jews, blamed them for Germany's decline,
and spoke of conspiracies to control global finance and media.
He glorified the Aryan race, demeaning Slavs, Poles
and Russians, and outlined his vision of Lebensraum,
or living space, for the German people.
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This expansionist policy would be pursued through war,
as Hitler openly discussed enslaving or exterminating entire populations.
He also fixated on avenging Germany's defeat in
the First World War, particularly by striking against France.
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Upon its publication in 1925, Mein Kampf was not an immediate success.
However, it provided a chilling warning, one that the world largely ignored.
Hitler, however, was patient.
As Germany's economy stabilised in the mid-1920s,
public interest in his extremist rhetoric waned, but
he waited for the right moment.
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That moment came in 1929, with the Wall
Street crash and the subsequent Great Depression.
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The effects on Germany were catastrophic.
Banks collapsed, life savings vanished, inflation skyrocketed, and
the economy ground to a halt.
In the ensuing desperation, Hitler and his Nazis
seized their opportunity, infiltrating the political establishment and
gaining widespread support.
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On January 30th, 1933, Hitler was appointed Chancellor of Germany.
As the Nazi SS marched triumphantly beneath the
towering columns of Berlin's Brandenburg Gate, thousands of Germans cheered.
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Josef Goebbels, Hitler's propaganda mastermind, exulted in his
diary, writing, It is almost like a dream,
a fairy tale.
The new Reich has begun.
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With Hitler's rise to power, democracy in Germany was swiftly dismantled.
Civil liberties were stripped away, freedom of the
press was curtailed, and political opponents were rounded
up, tortured or executed.
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The persecution of Jews intensified, as Nazi paramilitary
forces enforced boycotts on Jewish businesses and burned
books deemed un-German.
Many of Germany's brightest minds, scientists, artists, and
intellectuals fled the country, including Albert Einstein, Sigmund
Freud, and Marlene Dietrich.
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Within mere days, Germany had begun its transformation
into a totalitarian police state, where individual freedoms
were systematically eradicated.
The world watched in alarm, but few could
foresee the unprecedented horrors that lay ahead.
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Support for Hitler continued to grow at an
alarming rate, with rallies reaching unprecedented sizes.
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When 87-year-old President Hindenburg died on
the 2nd of August 1934, Hitler swiftly assumed
presidential powers, making himself the unchallenged Führer of Germany.
Matters worsened in 1935, when, in direct violation
of the Treaty of Versailles, Hitler bolstered the German army.
As he methodically expanded his military thousands of
miles away, another dictator pursued similar ambitions.
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In October 1935, Italian leader Mussolini invaded Abyssinia,
aiming to enhance his political prestige and establish new colonies.
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Despite public outcry in Britain, Stanley Baldwin's government
failed to act, potentially emboldening Hitler.
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When Hitler marched into the industrially rich Rhineland,
territory lost by Germany after the First World
War, on 7th March 1936, the world watched
as Britain and France failed to respond.
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Hitler later admitted, If the French had marched
into the Rhineland, we would have had to
withdraw with our tail between our legs, for
our military resources were wholly inadequate for even a moderate resistance.
He even contemplated suicide had Britain and France intervened.
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But with no repercussions, he pressed forward.
That summer, as the world gathered in Berlin
for the 1936 Olympic Games, Hitler continued plotting.
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With the outbreak of the Spanish Civil War, Hitler and
Mussolini supported General Franco's fascist regime.
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In November, Hitler signed an alliance with Japan,
forming a dangerous coalition.
Japan, deeply affected by the Great Depression, sought
to secure vital resources, escalating its conflict with China from 1931.
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The battle at Marco Polo Bridge in 1937
marked the start of full-scale war between China and Japan.
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Despite its vast population, China lacked military strength,
giving Japan the upper hand.
Meanwhile, Hitler set his sights on further expansion.
In a secret conference with his military chiefs,
he announced plans to seize Austria and Czechoslovakia,
exploiting France and Britain's perceived weaknesses.
His army commanders, Blomberg and Fritsch, were alarmed
at his aggressive intentions, but challenging him had become perilous.
Soon after, both were removed from their positions
under humiliating circumstances.
By 1938, with no opposition, Hitler forced Austria into unification.
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Following months of Nazi propaganda, German troops marched in,
and the Austrian Chancellor, after a heated
argument with Hitler, was coerced into submission.
Not a single shot was fired.
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This left neighbouring Czechoslovakia vulnerable, and Hitler wasted
no time declaring it his next target.
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At a Nazi congress in Berlin, 20,000
Nazis cheered as he threatened war over the region.
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Those who had established the Treaty of Versailles
now recognised that decisive action was necessary.
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With Prime Minister Stanley Baldwin retired, Neville Chamberlain
took office, advocating a strong anti-war stance.
As Britain prepared for possible conflict, with gas
masks distributed and sandbags filled, Chamberlain flew to
Germany in an attempt to negotiate peace.
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On 28th September 1938, four world leaders, French
Premier Edouard Daladier, Mussolini, Hitler and Chamberlain met
in Munich to discuss Czechoslovakia's fate.
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With memories of the First World War still fresh, Chamberlain
and Daladier, desperate to prevent another global conflict,
conceded Czechoslovakian territory to Hitler, believing his assurance
that this was his final demand in Europe.
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Returning to Britain with Hitler's signed promise, Chamberlain
was met with public and political celebration.
However, one voice of dissent stood out.
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Winston Churchill.
He had long warned of Hitler's threat and
condemned the Munich Agreement, famously stating, Britain and
France had to choose between war and dishonour.
They chose dishonour, they will have war.
Churchill's fears were soon realised.
On 15th March 1939, without warning, Hitler invaded Czechoslovakia.
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The Munich Agreement had been a missed opportunity to halt
Nazi expansion, and with Germany now even stronger,
Hitler turned his gaze eastward to Poland.
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That summer, Germany began a relentless campaign for
the return of Danzig and the Polish Corridor,
lost under the Treaty of Versailles.
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Before advancing, Hitler secured Soviet support, despite his
disdain for communism.
Foreign Minister Ribbentrop was sent to Moscow to
finalise a non-aggression pact with Stalin.
The world saw the writing on the wall.
Hitler was preparing for his next move.
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Having seized the Rhineland, Austria and Czechoslovakia with
little resistance, Hitler assumed Britain and France would remain passive.
But on 1st September 1939, when Nazi troops
invaded Poland, the Allies were bound by treaty to respond.
Britain and France issued an ultimatum.
If German troops did not withdraw immediately, war would be declared.
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The deadline was 11am on Sunday, 3rd September 1939.
When no response came, Neville Chamberlain addressed the
British people, announcing that Britain was at war with Germany.
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The hours following this declaration were extraordinary.
Londoners enjoying their Sunday morning were suddenly ushered
into shelters as air raid sirens blared across the capital.
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Fortunately, it was a false alarm, but the
fear was real, as memories of the First World War loomed large.
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By the end of the day, with concerns of a Nazi assault mounting, 1.5 million
evacuees – children, expectant mothers and women with
infants – were sent to the countryside.
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The evacuationwas efficiently managed.
Each child was tagged with their name, address and school number.
They carried gas masks, basic toiletries and, if they had one, an overcoat.
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The process, however, was deeply distressing, as families
parted with no certainty of their children's destinations.
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That same day, the first casualties of war were not in the cities, but at sea.
The SS Athenia, carrying over 1,000 passengers,
including women and children, from Dublin to Canada,
was attacked by a German U-boat, killing 112 people.
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Any prospect of a peaceful resolution with Hitler now seemed impossible.
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But there was one significant development.
Winston Churchill, the fiercest critic of appeasement, was
appointed First Lord of the Admiralty.
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The Royal Navy, relieved by his return, famously
signalled its fleet with a simple message.
Winston is back.
For Churchill, this was a pivotal moment.
Born at Blenheim Palace in Oxfordshire to aristocratic
parents, Lord Randolph Churchill and American heiress Jenny
Jerome, his early life had been fraught with difficulties.
Estranged from his parents and struggling in school,
Churchill found his calling in the military and later in politics.
Now, with war engulfing Europe, his leadership would
soon be tested like never before.
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Yet Churchill was no stranger to controversy, having
switched political parties multiple times and being blamed
for the disaster at Gallipoli in the First
World War, cutting short his tenure at the Admiralty.
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Following Gallipoli, he was demoted.
After years in the political wilderness, it seemed
as though his career had ended and that Winston was destined for retirement.
But everything changed on 3rd September 1939.
His country desperately needed his blunt style of leadership.
And being who he was, Churchill rose to the occasion.
After all, he had been right about Hitler's wicked plans.
In the nation's eyes, he was the man for the job, first at the Admiralty and
then beyond.
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As the British adapted to curfews and nightly
blackouts, little seemed to happen.
The only casualties were road accidents and falls,
as car headlights and streetlights were completely blacked out.
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A lull in activity even led to confused
evacuees returning home, as war and danger felt like a distant concern.
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Aircraft were sent over Germany, but rather than
dropping bombs, they released millions of leaflets informing
civilians and soldiers alike about the evils of the Nazi regime.
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It was thought this might intimidate the Nazis
by demonstrating Germany's vulnerability to air raids.
But many dismissed this as a pointless confetti
war, futile against such a ruthless enemy.
In fact, between the outbreak of war and
the year's end, this period became known as the Phony War.
For British civilians, war seemed distant.
But in Poland, it was a different reality.
The nation was being annihilated by Nazi forces,
and its people desperately needed Western Allied support.
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Hitler's commanders showed no mercy in their assault.
Fields and forests quaked as armoured columns thundered
through the terrain, destroying everything in their path.
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Overhead, the Luftwaffe raised buildings and roads, sending
civilians scattering.
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This new military tactic was called Blitzkrieg, or
lightning strike, allowing the Nazis to attack with
speed and surprise, rather than being bogged down
in trench warfare, a lesson learned from the First World War.
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The British and French had wrongly assumed Poland could hold out
for two to three months before requiring military assistance.
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Huge numbers of civilians perished as terror bombings
devastated Poland, with the Nazis brutally massacring many Poles.
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Operation Tannenberg claimed 20,000 lives, with shootings
at 760 mass execution sites.
But these atrocities were only the beginning of
the horrors that would unfold in the Second World War.
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Hoping for Western aid, Polish militia and civilian
volunteers courageously defended Warsaw.
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Meanwhile, the British Expeditionary Force was swiftly deployed
to France, with half a million British and
French troops waiting at the Maginot Line along
the German border for the order to strike.
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But the command never came.
Allied leaders believed they were still unprepared for
war, and hesitated to advance into Germany.
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Little did they know, there were no tanks
left on the German defensive line, the Siegfried
Line, as the Nazis prioritised Poland's destruction.
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Had the Allies acted then, the war might have been cut short.
Tragically, intelligence came too late, and the brave
Poles were steadily crushed.
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Worse was yet to come.
On 17th September, the Soviet Red Army, 800
,000 strong, marched into eastern Poland, fulfilling Stalin's
agreement with Hitler to divide the country.
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Hundreds of miles west, Warsaw held out until
disease, starvation and exhaustion forced its surrender.
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The Polish capital was utterly reduced to rubble.
On 28th September, its defenders were marched out,
as the Nazis triumphantly marched in.
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In Poland’s aftermath, Chamberlain's vague address in the Commons failed
to inspire confidence, while Churchill's resolute words captivated Britain.
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Even Hitler saw Churchill as Britain's true leader,
particularly after Poland's fall, and attempted to broker
peace, appealing to Churchill's faction rather than Chamberlain's.
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Although Britain and France had failed to save
Poland, they now fully understood Hitler's imperial ambitions
and prepared for their own defence.
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After war was declared, Britain's National Service Act made men
aged 18 to 40 eligible for conscription into the Army, Navy or Air Force.
Many also volunteered throughout 1939.
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Mobilisation extended beyond Europe, as Indians, Cypriots, Australians
and New Zealanders trained while Canada provided military and financial aid.
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Soon, soldiers, airmen, ships and supplies poured into
Britain from across the Commonwealth to support the fight against Nazi Germany.
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Despite this, many European nations remained neutral, reluctant
to risk their economies or sever ties with Germany.
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The United States wished to avoid sending troops into overseas conflicts,
but Roosevelt's Neutrality Act of 1939 permitted US arms to aid the Allies.
Norway and Denmark also sought neutrality, as they
had in the First World War, but events would soon drag them into battle.
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While Britain remained largely peaceful on land, the
situation at sea was far deadlier.
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A German submarine torpedoed the aircraft carrier HMS
Courageous, killing 550 men, including the captain, who
refused to leave the bridge.
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Yet under Churchill's leadership, the Royal Navy fought back fiercely.
While the phony war continued at home, at sea, Hitler was left in no doubt of
Britain's naval strength.
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However, Hitler was not the only aggressor seeking territorial gains.
Just two months after securing Poland, the Soviet
Union struck again, drawing Finland into the war.
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Despite their pact with Hitler, Stalin's regime feared
Germany, France or Britain might use Finland as
a launching point against Leningrad.
Under their agreement, Finland was assigned to the
Soviet sphere of influence, and Stalin's forces were
eager to claim what they considered theirs.
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In autumn 1939, the Soviets demanded Finland move
its border 25 kilometres from Leningrad.
When Finland refused, Stalin ordered an invasion on 30 November 1939.
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Overpowering Finland seemed easy.
Soviet troops outnumbered the Finns 4 to 1,
their tanks 200 to 1 and aircraft 30
to 1.
But Stalin's forces faced a tougher battle than expected.
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The winter of 1939 was one of Finland's
harshest, with temperatures plunging to minus 20 degrees Celsius.
Soviet troops, recruited from Russia's south, were unaccustomed
to such conditions.
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In contrast, the Finns used their knowledge of
the terrain, deploying swift ski troops in white
camouflage to ambush the enemy.
Despite shortages of weapons and supplies, the Finns
struck Soviet troops as they huddled by their
fires and seized enemy provisions.
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Finnish snipers exploited the Soviets' dark uniforms against the snow.
One, a farmer by trade, killed 542 Red
Army soldiers, earning the title of deadliest sniper in military history.
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The world was captivated by Finland's plight and its ghost-like
warriors gliding through wintry forests.
The struggle against the Soviets united Finland, a
nation once torn by civil war.
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Christmas 1939 saw Finns rally together, determined to
defend their homeland, while in Britain families gathered
for festive dinners, wondering if war would reach their shores.
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As 1940 dawned, the naval conflict began affecting daily life.
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As Britain depended on food imports, German U
-boat attacks made it increasingly difficult for cargo ships to deliver goods.
Bacon, sugar and butter became the first items to be rationed.
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Ration books with coupons ensured fair distribution as
Britain felt war's impact.
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A major threat to British merchant ships was the formidable
German battleship Graf Spee, which had sunk nine Allied vessels in 1939.
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The British and French navies organised eight task
forces to track down the raider.
The resulting chase ended in a dramatic battle
off Argentina's coast, delivering Britain a much-needed morale boost.
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Though the navy had managed to sink the Graf Spee, another issue remained.
The 300 British prisoners captured from the ship
sunk by the Nazis, who had been transferred to the German vessel Altmark.
Under Winston Churchill's command, the Admiralty ordered the
destroyer HMS Cossack to rescue them,
eventually tracking the Altmark to a fjord in neutral Norway.
The Cossack pursued, ran alongside, and after an
intense battle with hand-to-hand combat, the prisoners were freed.
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Returning home with the rescued men, the Cossack's
crew received a jubilant welcome.
In London, Churchill celebrated the navy's triumph, further
increasing his popularity in Britain.
With Chamberlain's government continuing to falter, Churchill became
the obvious leader to counter Adolf Hitler's ambitions.
Amidst this, the Allies pressed on with their plan to aid Finland.
However, by the 15th of March, the heavily
bombed-out Finns could wait no longer and
chose to make peace with the Red Army.
The new frontier, as demanded by the Soviets,
was established, forcing 200,000 Finns to abandon their homes.
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The failure to aid Finland led to widespread
discontent in Britain and France, with Allied leaders blamed for inaction.
Five days after Finland signed the Moscow Peace
Treaty, the French Premier was replaced.
And Neville Chamberlain's fate became clear as his critics grew in Parliament.
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Finland's fall shook not only Britain and France,
but also their Scandinavian neighbours, who now questioned their neutrality.
Both the Germans and the Allies turned their
focus to Norway, strategically valuable and an outlet
for Swedish iron ore, essential to Hitler's war machine.
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Churchill urged troops to be sent there, but
Chamberlain's government refused to act, once again letting
Hitler seize the advantage.
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The Nazi invasion of Denmark and Norway proved
the devastating skill and organisation of the German military.
Ironically, the Allies had expected a land advance,
believing Germany would avoid confronting the superior Royal Navy.
But the Nazis did exactly that.
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On the 9th of April, 1940, Germany launched its assault, catching everyone off
guard.
Denmark surrendered immediately, with minimal losses, but Norway
resisted as long as possible.
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Against Germany's relentless tactics, however, its defence was
nearly impossible.
Before British, French and Norwegian forces could coordinate,
the Germans seized key coastal positions, pushing as far as Narvik.
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In London, when news confirmed Churchill's warnings had
been right, the cabinet at first struggled to believe it.
Due to Chamberlain's hesitation, Norway was lost before
any real defence could be mounted, leaving the
Nazis dangerously close to Britain.
Though Hitler's ships suffered constant attacks, the Germans
pressed forward relentlessly.
The British public and politicians alike were outraged
by Chamberlain's government's failures over Norway, sparking fierce debate.
In Parliament, it was clear the Prime Minister
had lost the people's confidence, and with honour, he resigned.
On the 10th of May, 1940, Winston Churchill,
at 65, became leader of a coalition government
set to guide Britain through the war.
To a relieved nation, there was no doubt,
Churchill was the right man for the job.
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At last, Hitler faced a formidable adversary.
As Churchill assumed office, his inaugural speech signalled
to Germany that success would no longer come easily.
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He declared, I have nothing to offer but blood, toil, tears and sweat.
You ask, what is our policy?
I can say it is to wage war by sea, land and air with all our might,
and with all the strength that God can give us, to wage war against a
monstrous tyranny never surpassed in the dark, lamentable
catalogue of human crime.
That is our policy.
You ask, what is our aim?
I can answer in one word.
It is victory.
Victory at all costs.
Victory in spite of all terror.
Victory, however long and hard the road may be.
For without victory, there is no survival.
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Even as Churchill spoke these now legendary words
in Parliament, the very threat he warned of
was closing in on Britain at alarming speed,
sweeping through the Netherlands and the Low Countries.
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Nazi forces struck Holland, Belgium and Luxembourg simultaneously,
leaving destruction and death in their wake.
As cities crumbled and civilians fled, German troops
cut a path towards their long-time enemy, France.
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Hitler had anticipated this confrontation, but knew his
army was smaller than the French.
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However, by employing blitzkrieg tactics, he once again
breached enemy lines with remarkable speed.
This time, having learned from past mistakes, the Allies responded immediately.
British and French forces swiftly mobilised, advancing to
meet the Belgian army and form a solid
defensive line from the English Channel to Switzerland.
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Yet the southern flank collapsed against German pressure.
Within days, the entire BEF and half the
French army found themselves encircled.
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By the 12th of May, German troops had entered France.
By the next day, a 50-mile gap had formed between French divisions.
The Luftwaffe had inflicted heavy losses on the
RAF, while the French Air Force was nearly
annihilated, only three days into the battle.
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As a million refugees fled in panic, Holland
had fallen, Belgium was crumbling, and on the
16th of May, French Commander-in-Chief General
Maurice Gamelin admitted to the Anglo-French War
Council that he had no remaining reserve.
It was a dire moment for France, and the situation was rapidly worsening.
By the 20th of May, the Germans had
reached the coast, effectively severing the Allied forces.
The Allies now risked losing the entire British
expeditionary force, trapped against the sea and surrounded.
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Exhausted British troops faced relentless attacks and were
driven back to Dunkirk.
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The loss of thousands of soldiers seemed inevitable,
and Hitler was convinced victory was at hand.
France lay exposed, awaiting occupation.
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Yet despite Hitler's impressive conquests, he had miscalculated
Churchill's resolve and the resilience of the British people.
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What followed was one of history's most astonishing rescue operations.
The phony war had ended.
With Europe in turmoil under Hitler's relentless offensive,
the battle for Dunkirk had begun.
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